2. 南华大学土木工程学院, 衡阳 421001;
3. 南华大学稀有金属矿产开发与废物地质处置技术湖南省重点实验室, 衡阳 421001;
4. 南华大学衡阳医学院病原生物学研究所, 衡阳 421001
2. School of Civil Engineering, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China;
3. Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Rare Metal Mineral Exploitation and Geological Disposal of Wastes, Hengyang 421001, China;
4. Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China
抗生素耐药性(AMR)对全球人类健康的威胁日益严峻[1]. 世界卫生组织最新报告表明, 每年有70万人因耐药细菌感染死亡, 且截至2050年死亡人数可能会超过100万人·a年-1[2]. 作为AMR的载体, 耐药基因(antibiotic resistance genes, ARGs)被视作一种新兴环境污染物[3, 4]. 污水处理厂是ARGs的重要环境储存库[5~7], 但现有污水处理工艺无法彻底去除污泥和污水中全部ARGs[5, 8]. 在污水中, 以游离态胞外DNA(free extracellular DNA, feDNA)形式存在的胞外耐药基因(free extracellular ARGs, feARGs)可持久存在, 且在适宜条件下可通过转化作用重新进入敏感受体细菌[9, 10]. 因此, 揭示feARGs在污水中的动态特征对于控制水体环境AMR传播至关重要.
近年来, 污水处理厂被证明是新兴环境污染——微塑料(microplastics, MPs)的关键“汇”与“源”[11~14].研究者已在污水处理厂进水中检出MPs 1 ~ 7 000个·L-1[14]. MPs会通过诱导污泥中微生物生理学反应影响ARGs的增殖与传播能力[15~17]. 例如, 聚乙烯和聚氯乙烯MPs暴露125 d导致污泥中ARGs丰度增加了5.7% ~ 123.4%[18]. 此外, MPs还会通过诱导活性氧(ROS)产生、增加细胞膜通透性以及富集可移动遗传元件(MGEs, 如intI1)等机制影响ARGs的水平传播[17~20]. 然而, 上述研究多聚焦于污泥胞内ARGs的变化, MPs对污水中feARGs动态消长规律的影响至今尚不明晰.
本研究采用序批式反应器(SBR)考察了不同浓度与粒径聚苯乙烯微塑料(polystyrene, PS)暴露下污水中典型四环素类(tetC和tetO)与磺胺类(sul1和sul2)feARGs的动态特征, 通过分析PS暴露下ROS、细胞膜通透性、MGEs和外排泵基因等典型驱动因子揭示了MPs影响feARGs增殖与传播的潜在机制, 以期为污水中ARGs与MPs复合污染风险的评估和控制提供依据.
1 材料与方法 1.1 污泥采集与处理活性污泥取自衡阳市某规模为15 000 ~ 20 000 m3·d-1的污水处理厂, 污泥浓度约为5 500 mg·L-1. 活性污泥采用SBR进行驯化. SBR每天运行两个周期, 每个周期12 h, 即缺氧4 h、好氧7 h、沉淀0.5 h和静置排水0.5 h. 待出水化学需氧量和氨氮等水质参数保持稳定后, 将污泥转移至子SBR中进行PS暴露实验.
1.2 PS暴露实验向装有2.2 L污泥的子SBR中投加PS, 开展为期60 d的暴露实验. 污泥中ARGs的增殖与传播通常与PS粒径和浓度有关[16, 19, 21]. PS粒径设置如下:nm级(100 nm)、μm级(100 μm)和mm级(1 mm)[21~23]. PS实验浓度为其代表性环境浓度(0.5 mg·L-1)[24]和特定环境胁迫浓度(50 mg·L-1)[21, 25]. 同时, 设置空白对照组(0 mg·L-1 PS). 实验组和对照组均设置2个平行. 分别于1、3、7、14、21、28、45和60 d收集污泥混合液样品. 离心(8 000 r·min-1, 1 min)后, 将污泥和污水于-60 ℃保存.
1.3 feDNA的提取与纯化取5 mL污水样品, 采用乙醇-乙酸铵沉淀法[26]获得feDNA粗提取液. 接着采用苯酚-氯仿法[27]纯化feDNA粗提取液. 利用多功能酶标仪(BioTek, 美国)和PicoGreen dsDNA Quantitation Kit(Invitrogen, 中国)测定feDNA的浓度及纯度. 纯feDNA需满足A260/A280为1.8 ~ 2.0, A260/A230 > 2.0. 最后, 将纯化的feDNA于-20 ℃保存.
1.4 RNA的提取与反转录利用RNAprep纯细菌/细胞试剂盒(天根生化科技有限公司, 中国), 按照其操作说明提取污泥样品中细菌的RNA. 使用微量核酸蛋白分析仪(Nanodrop2000, 美国)检测RNA的浓度和纯度. 然后, 使用PrimeScript RT试剂盒(Takara, 中国)对RNA进行反转录以产生互补DNA(cDNA). 最后, 将cDNA于-20 ℃保存, 用于检测典型外排泵基因(acrA)的表达水平.
1.5 荧光定量PCR测试采用SuperReal PreMix(Probe)试剂盒定量分析污水处理厂中常见的4类feARGs(sul1、sul2、tetC和tetO)[28~30]、典型MGEs(intI1)[29, 30]、16S rRNA[29, 30]和acrA[31, 32]. 目标基因引物序列参见文献[30~33]. 荧光定量PCR测试采用20 μL扩增体系, 即SuperReal PreMix Plus 10 μL、正反引物(10 μmol·L-1)各0.6 μL、模板DNA(1 ng·μL-1)2 μL以及无菌无酶水6.8 μL. 热循环程序为:95 ℃变性30秒, 退火30秒, 72 ℃延伸30秒;共计40个循环. 将携带特定基因的质粒连续稀释10倍制作标准曲线, 所得相关基因标准曲线R2 > 0.997. 所有样品一式三份. feARGs丰度计算公式参见文献[34].
1.6 ROS与细胞膜通透性检测使用2', 7'-二氯荧光素二乙酸酯荧光探针(Invitrogen, 美国)测定活性污泥细胞中ROS含量[35]. 采用多功能酶标仪(BioTek, 美国)于488 nm激发波长、525 nm发射波长下测量样品荧光值. ROS浓度为样品荧光值与空白对照组荧光值的百分比值. 活性污泥中细菌细胞膜通透性通过LIVE/DEAD BacLight Bacterial Viability Kits(Invitrogen, 美国)进行检测. 使用多功能酶标仪, 在激发波长485 nm、发射波长530 nm(绿光特征发射波长)和630 nm(红光特征发射波长)下测定样品荧光值, 分别记为Fg和Fr. 以活细菌比例为横坐标, 对应的荧光比值Fg /Fr为纵坐标, 绘制标准曲线. 样品中活细菌比例按以下公式计算:
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式中, a为标准曲线的斜率;b为标准曲线的截距. 为了定性分析PS暴露下细胞形态的变化, 将污泥细胞(PS暴露14 d)固定在2.5%戊二醛溶液中, 通过透射电子显微镜(TEM)(日立H-7650, 日本)进行观察.
1.7 数据分析采用Microsoft Excel软件进行数据处理. 利用SPSS 22.0进行Pearson相关性分析. 其中, P < 0.05为显著相关, P < 0.01为极显著相关. 通过R 3.2.3和Origin 20.0作图.
2 结果与讨论 2.1 PS对污水中feARGs分布的影响 2.1.1 PS对四环素类feARGs分布的影响本研究首先考察了不同粒径和浓度PS对feARGs分布的影响. 如图 1所示, 四环素类feARGs丰度水平在PS暴露1 ~ 3 d下降;3 ~ 21 d持续增长, 至第21 d达到峰值(绝对丰度:3.7 × 106 copies·mL-1);21 ~ 45 d期间逐渐降低, 并于45 d后保持稳定. 这说明四环素类feARGs丰度在PS暴露期间呈波动状态. 与对照组相比, 四环素类feARGs的绝对丰度在nm级和mm级PS暴露60 d后分别下降了28.4% ~ 76.0%和35.2% ~ 96.2%, 而在μm级PS暴露组中变化了-55.4% ~ 122.4%(图 1). 这表明nm级和mm级PS会削减四环素类feARGs, 而μm级PS对四环素类feARGs的影响与PS浓度有关. 进一步对比发现, 60 d后50 mg·L-1 nm级PS暴露组中四环素类feARGs的绝对丰度为0.5 mg·L-1 nm级PS暴露组的33.5% ~ 79.5% [图 1(a)]. 相反, 在50 mg·L-1 mm级PS暴露后四环素类feARGs的绝对丰度为其在0.5 mg·L-1 mm级PS暴露组的1.6 ~ 16.9倍[图 1(c)]. 因此, PS暴露对四环素类feARGs的影响取决于PS浓度和粒径.
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柱状图对应绝对丰度, 点状图对应相对丰度 图 1 PS暴露下四环素类feARGs(tetC和tetO)的丰度 Fig. 1 Abundance of tetracycline feARGs (tetC and tetO) under PS exposure |
PS暴露60 d后, sul1的绝对丰度较对照组增加了0.2 ~ 4.9倍(图 2). PS暴露对sul1的富集效果呈nm级 > μm级 > mm级趋势. 此外, 0.5 mg·L-1和50 mg·L-1 PS暴露60 d后sul1的绝对丰度分别高于对照组1.0 ~ 2.0倍和0.2 ~ 4.9倍(图 2). 这说明, 与0.5 mg·L-1 PS相比, 50 mg·L-1 PS暴露对sul1丰度水平的扰动幅度更大. 再者, 60 d后对照组中sul1绝对丰度比第1 d降低了90.1%, 而PS暴露60 d后sul1绝对丰度较第1 d降低了33.6% ~ 75.6%. 这说明PS暴露可能会诱导污泥中ARGs释放至污水[36].
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柱状图对应绝对丰度, 散点对应相对丰度 图 2 PS暴露下磺胺类feARGs(sul1和sul2)的丰度 Fig. 2 Abundance of sulfonamide feARGs (sul1 and sul2) under PS exposure |
与对照组相比, nm级、μm级和mm级PS暴露60 d后sul2的相对丰度分别变化了185.5% ~ 386.4%、-42.6% ~ -25.4%和-90.3% ~ -46.1%(图 2). 这说明nm级PS暴露明显促进了sul2增殖, 但μm级和mm级PS对sul2存在削减作用, 且mm级PS对sul2的削减效果优于μm级PS. 此外, 50 mg·L-1 mm级PS暴露60 d后sul2的绝对丰度削减量比0.5 mg·L-1 mm级PS暴露高33.0%(图 2). 这可能是由于高浓度MPs对feARGs的吸附能力较强[15]. 与sul1类似, sul2的绝对丰度在PS暴露期间呈升-降-升的波动趋势. 值得注意的是, 对照组中sul2在60 d后的绝对丰度为第1 d的17.7倍;而PS暴露60 d后, sul2的绝对丰度为第1 d的6.3 ~ 237.1倍. 这说明PS暴露会刺激sul2的增殖.
2.2 PS暴露下污水中feARGs的动态转变机制 2.2.1 PS暴露对ROS与细胞膜通透性的影响不同粒径和浓度PS暴露对细胞内ROS水平的影响如图 3(a)所示. 在nm级、μm级和mm级PS暴露60 d后, ROS产生量较对照组分别增加了15.5% ~ 77.0%、33.1% ~ 33.3%和21.5% ~ 24.5%. 这表明nm级PS暴露下ROS浓度波动幅度最大, 而μm级PS对ROS的影响高于mm级PS. 此外, 0.5 mg·L-1 PS(除mm级)暴露14 d后ROS水平为50 mg·L-1 PS暴露组的78.3% ~ 83.1%;且0.5 mg·L-1和50 mg·L-1 PS暴露60 d后ROS含量较对照组分别增加了15.5% ~ 33.1%和21.5% ~ 77.0%. 与0.5 mg·L-1 PS相比, 50 mg·L-1 PS暴露更有利于促进细胞内ROS产生. 这可能是因为高浓度MPs暴露下细胞产ROS能力与抗氧化能力之间的平衡被破坏[37, 38], 继而导致细胞产生更多ROS. 值得注意的是, ROS水平在PS暴露第14 d最高(为对照组的1.6 ~ 2.2倍), 14 d后急剧下降. 与此同时, PS暴露后sul1绝对丰度也在14 d达到峰值(3.7 × 107 ~ 4.6 × 107 copies·mL-1)后急剧下降1 ~ 2个数量级(图 2). 因此, PS暴露可能会通过诱导细胞产生ROS改变sul1水平.
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(a)ROS变化倍数, (b)活细胞比例变化倍数, (c)细胞TEM图(c1)0.5 mg·L-1 nm级, (c2)0.5 mg·L-1 µm级, (c3)0.5 mg·L-1 mm级, (c4)50 mg·L-1 nm级, (c5)50 mg·L-1 µm级, (c6)50 mg·L-1 mm级 图 3 PS暴露下ROS与细胞膜通透性的变化 Fig. 3 Changes in ROS and cell membrane permeability under PS exposure |
不同粒径和浓度PS暴露下污泥细菌的细胞膜通透性变化如图 3(b)所示. 与对照组相比, 0.5 mg·L-1 nm级、μm级和mm级PS暴露60 d后细菌活细胞比例分别减少18.5%、14.6%和14.3%;而50 mg·L-1 nm级、μm级和mm级PS暴露60 d后细菌活细胞比例分别降低41.6%、38.0%和23.4%. 这说明50 mg·L-1 PS较0.5 mg·L-1 PS暴露更有利于增加细胞膜通透性. 类似地, Mrakovcic等[39]研究发现20 μg·mL-1和50 μg·mL-1 PS暴露24 h后未对细胞产生毒性, 但200 μg·mL-1 PS使活细胞比例降低至初始水平的12%. 进一步对比发现, nm级PS暴露下活细胞比例降幅高于μm级和mm级PS暴露组. 这可能是因为粒径较小的nm级塑料可以进入细胞, 并通过诱导细胞膜孔的形成增加细胞膜通透性[16, 40]. 此外, 在PS暴露过程中, 细菌细胞膜通透性先升后降[图 3(b)], 这与sul1丰度的变化趋势一致. 例如, 第14 d细胞膜通透性增加[图3(b)和3(c)], 同时sul1丰度也明显升高(图 2). 再者, PS暴露下ROS含量[图 3(a)]与细胞膜通透性[图 3(b)]也呈现相似的变化趋势. 综上可知, PS暴露可能会通过促进细胞内ROS过量产生增加细胞膜通透性[41, 42], 最终刺激污水中sul1增殖.
2.2.2 PS暴露对intI1丰度和acrA表达水平的影响不同粒径和浓度PS暴露对游离态胞外可移动性intI1的影响如图4(a)~4(c)所示. PS暴露60 d后intI1的绝对丰度和相对丰度分别为对照组的13.0% ~ 35.7 %和13.5% ~ 89.6%. PS暴露对污水中intI1的削减效果呈mm级 > µm级 > nm级规律. 此外, 在0.5 mg·L-1 nm级和mm级PS暴露60 d后, intI1的绝对丰度分别比同粒径50 mg·L-1 PS暴露组低24.0%和45.7%;而0.5 mg·L-1 μm级PS暴露60 d后, intI1的绝对丰度较50 mg·L-1 μm级PS暴露组高51.2%. 这说明PS对污水中intI1的抑制效果与PS浓度有关[43]. 值得注意的是, PS暴露下intI1绝对丰度整体上先增后减[图4(a)~4(c)], 这与PS暴露下四环素类feARGs的丰度变化规律相似(图 1). 因此, PS暴露可能通过削减污水中intI1丰度降低四环素类feARGs水平.
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柱状图对应绝对丰度, 点状图对应相对丰度 图 4 PS暴露下游离态胞外intI1丰度和acrA表达水平 Fig. 4 Abundance of free extracellular intI1 and acrA expression under PS exposure |
外排泵可以通过将有毒化学物质排出细胞避免细胞损伤, 这被视为细菌对抗生素产生耐药性的重要途径[44, 45]. 因此, 本研究考察了不同粒径和浓度PS暴露下典型外排泵基因(acrA)的丰度变化情况[图 4(d)]. 在nm级、µm级和mm级PS暴露60 d后acrA的丰度较对照组分别降低了4.5% ~ 60.4%、18.5% ~ 53.0%和64.4% ~ 74.1%. 这说明mm级PS暴露较nm级和µm级PS更有利于削减acrA. 进一步对比发现, 50 mg·L-1 nm级和μm级PS暴露60 d后acrA的丰度较对照组的削减比例分别为0.5 mg·L-1 nm级和μm级PS暴露组的7.4%和34.9%. 这表明, 与50 mg·L-1 PS相比, 0.5 mg·L-1的PS暴露可能较易削减intI1丰度和acrA表达水平. 同时, acrA与tetC的丰度在PS暴露21 ~ 28 d均显著下降(acrA:99.0% ~ 99.8%;tetC:20.3% ~ 54.4%), 且21 d时均有所增加(acrA:对照组的2.8 ~ 16.2倍;tetC:对照组的1.3 ~ 1.7倍), 第28 d均被削减(acrA:22.9% ~ 50.5%;tetC:6.1% ~ 37.5%)[图 4(d)和图 1]. 这说明PS暴露下tetC的丰度变化可能受acrA调控.
2.3 PS影响污水中feARGs的关键机制为了明确PS暴露下feARGs的关键转变机制, 本研究采用Pearson相关分析探究了ROS、细胞膜通透性、游离态胞外intI1和acrA水平变化对feARGs的潜在影响(图 5). PS暴露下, ROS含量与tetO和sul1相对丰度显著负相关(tetO:r = -0.41, P < 0.05;sul1:r = -0.51, P < 0.01). 因此, PS可能通过诱导ROS产生从而抑制feARGs增殖. 此外, 在PS暴露过程中, 细胞膜通透性水平与tetO、sul1相对丰度存在显著正相关(tetO:r = 0.38, P < 0.05;sul1:r = 0.42, P < 0.05), 说明PS可能通过增加细胞膜通透性促进feARGs增殖. PS暴露下游离态胞外intI1与tetC(r = 0.86, P < 0.01)、tetO(r = 0.75, P < 0.01)和sul1(r = 0.90, P < 0.01)均成极显著正相关, 表明PS暴露主要通过游离态intI1改变feARGs相对丰度.
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图 5 PS暴露下ROS、细胞膜通透性、游离态胞外intI1和acrA与feARGs的相关性 Fig. 5 Correlation of ROS, cell membrane permeability, free extracellular intI1, and acrA with feARGs under PS exposure |
(1)nm级和mm级PS暴露会削减污水中四环素类feARGs, 而μm级PS暴露对四环素类feARGs的影响取决于PS浓度.
(2)PS暴露对磺胺类sul1的促进效果呈nm级 > μm级 > mm级趋势, 且ρ(PS)为50 mg·L-1较ρ(PS)为0.5 mg·L-1暴露对sul1表达水平的扰动幅度更大. nm级PS暴露会促进sul2增殖;μm级和mm级PS暴露则削减了sul2丰度, 且ρ(PS)为50 mg·L-1对sul2的削减作用优于ρ(PS)为0.5 mg·L-1.
(3)nm级PS有利于促进细胞内ROS产生与增加细胞膜通透性, 而mm级PS和ρ(PS)为0.5 mg·L-1较易削减intI1的丰度和降低acrA的表达. PS暴露下feARGs相对丰度与细胞膜通透性和intI1丰度成正相关, 与ROS水平成负相关.
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